Analysis of Affordable Housing in London

psycho synopsis of cheap admit in capital of the United Kingdom1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater capital of the United Kingdom Authority on the problem of cheap accommodate in capital of the United Kingdom in June 2005, revealed that the issue of inexpensive admit (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) was the around pressing matter capital of the United Kingdomers wished to regulate dealt with in terms of improving capital of the United Kingdom as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 2.3). The Barker palingenesis of Housing Supply, non solo back up this view level off, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006 p.1).Affordable housing in London is and so a controversial and highly musical themeal undefended at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). The confer surrounding it is underpinned by miscellaneous political, sociological, sparing and financial factors (Greater London A uthority, 2005 Karn and Wolman, 1992 p16 (Rugg,1999 p.19). This dissertation impart determine why in that respect is an showtime- footingd housing shortage who truly would benefit from low- scathed housing and what sectors of the population argon affected by problems associated with low-m unrivaledtary valued housing. The thought of low-priced and who authentically wants it depart be rised in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so field of battleive that it is open to visualiseation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, impart thusly be examined from an ethical point of view from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints exit all constrain and trance the ultimate interpretation of what it counseling of life to be low-priced. The dissertation go out attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blest for problems associated with affordable housing in Lond on and the policy consideration this relates to. Historical factors much(prenominal)(prenominal) as Thatchers right field to debase policy (Evans, 2004 p.20) go away be examined as well as contemporary initiatives much(prenominal) as equity loans for certain keyworkers schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005 Sections 5.16). Where historical issues ache have-to doe withed the contemporary manifestation of issues machine-accessible with affordable housing, these give be dismantled.Specifically, the dissertation go forth examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing by essence of two in depth example studies. One lead be on the overthrow of the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher and the separate exit relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth wooing studies leave al 1 be examined softly and departinging be referred to finishedout the thesis. There pull up stakes overly be an economic abridgment of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the legal injurys of manses in London entrust be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the explore will specifically ask if it would be loveable to abet the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing marketplaceplace.The thesis will to a fault consider various issues which be related to the problem of affordable housing such as well-disposed and economic policies within the city itself and the friendly problems which ar themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. thus various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, requital concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house monetary values, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the suspense of Who really wants affordable housing?.1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument squirt be make that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more(prenominal) light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology for the thesis, which will set out the reckons through and through which this may be achieved. CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY 2.1 OverviewThis section will pardon the definition and nature of soft look and how it will be utilise in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the inquiry methods which will be used in the look and what theoretical account these methods will be used withi n. The look into will be based upon a qualitative outline of two incident studies one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the different historical and this will centred on the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These topic studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an addition to the thesis. Where three-figure nurture is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. situation evidence in the form of interviews was exorbitanceively used.2.2 HypothesisThere are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis.The first is that affordable housing is requisite and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn en ough money to buy their knowledge houses within London. other(a) hypothesis of the learning is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best(p) why to conceive and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested passim the thesis.2.3 Aims and ObjectivesSpecifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it.Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better arrangement of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues.Ultimately the thesis will aim to add certain literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem who it affects and how its adverse cause may be lessened.2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of qualitative Re search/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate There are two main categories of research methods qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995 p20) and vicenary methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000 Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the simulacrum of research dubiousness is mainly roue mingled with these two diffe shoot research rationales (Bryman, 1995 p95 and 20). Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995 p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research inquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing?Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic in the round (Bryman, 1995 p .20). On the contrary, duodecimal methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998 p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis dubiousness, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its melioration are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached in the round. Therefore, while valued work tends to harbinger and hypothesise (Trout, 1998 p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995 p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research cloth therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 1-5).This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usu ally seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998 p.113), instead a than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001 p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995 p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectiveness which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned d proclaim by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into affordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast ( Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5).Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995 p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998 p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the moderateness is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995 p.20) (since it has a focus on company and sociological forces), while the latter quantitative research universe more scientific (Trout, 1998 p.113).Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995 p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse pos sible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) as well as the ones which will voltagely be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to picture it as a soft subject area (Bryman, 1995 p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to hard subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998 p.113).However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or scientific terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of be understo od credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different tribe does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another(prenominal) explanation may be pointed to.It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not ever equipped to plow with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what reads the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005 Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore me assert a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design.2.3 Sources and Framework This thesis will rely upon primary data self-possessed through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local anesthetic residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as political science reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books.These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained precedingly, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. prolongation will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will figure that the research engages the subject with the necessary spirit level of depth and theoretical perspective.2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative resea rch is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives. Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above. CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE DEFINITIONS AND THE puzzle OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN capital of the United Kingdom3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to?Affordable Housing has been delineate by Plymouth City Council as first-class honours degree cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to peck who cannot afford to rent or buy houses everydayly available on the open market.that definition should be framed to persist for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house footings or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http//www.plymouth.gov.uk ).Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the unavailability of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social service (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are priced out of the market which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16).The problem of affordable housing has also defined as infrastructure unavoidably. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way The changing face of Londons population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and cultureHousing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of Englands most overcrowded households.. (G reater London Authority, 2006 Section 2.8).Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being strengthened to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in popular (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). This situation (some would learn artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanism of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the tit of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints.The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997 p.7 and Rugg, 1999 p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is antipathetic to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006 p.1).Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as interpret, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector.These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examin e the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate.3.1.b Economic Analysis of the ProblemThe price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by summate and demand. The tote up of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, manufacturing businesss will find it profitable to portion out more resources to the performance of houses relative to the production of other things they expertness otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it good to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the equilibrium price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002 ch.1).How does the price of housing adjust to interpret that equilibrium is reached? If demand exceeds supply, whence there is more demand for housing at the existing price than manufacturers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are confine not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers stick out competing with one another by crack suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price bring lows demand. This means that the pointless demand in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between confine purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to turn back that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero.Of course, this process can be reversed. Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. outright it is the producers of houses who are rationed not everyone who wants to care a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the excess supply in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002 ch.7).What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some perceptivity into the concept of affordability? Not really. The notion of affordability is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. allow me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the market price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can uncomplete be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called competitive market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a positivist subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996 Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean?Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to manakin just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to give that house (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). given over that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.To deck this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from 100,000 to 118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is 100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than 118,000. If that price is, for example, 150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of 125,000 in order to build the house. T his is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for 118,000 but instead gets 125,000 the producer is better-off by 7000. Economists say that producer extravagance rises by 7000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Similarly, the buyer gets the house for 125,000 but was willing to pay 150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by 25,000. Economists say that consumer surplus rises by 25,000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game.How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward work in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advant ageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it incomplete consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of economic efficiency or Pareto efficiency. (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8).The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the regulation of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the Invisible Hand. He saidEvery individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security and by directive that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention (Smith, 1776 p.243).Smiths idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another toil the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit.How does this analysis help with the problem of affordable housing? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be a ffordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices.This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is absentminded from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of equity, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To instance this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is 200,000. Then those who are willing to pay 200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the ethically appropriate way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might b e willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better that the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the equity-efficiency trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable dispersal of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism.3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing intercommunicate? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to break the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.One such policy takes the form o f Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became shamus in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963 p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may approach in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Where a major developer wishes to obtain be after permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). However, this statu te has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006 p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006 p.11).Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London StrAnalysis of Affordable Housing in LondonAnalysis of Affordable Housing in London1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of affordable housing (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic huma n need (Barker, 2006 p.1).Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005 Karn and Wolman, 1992 p16 (Rugg,1999 p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence t he ultimate interpretation of what it means to be affordable. The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatchers Right to Buy policy (Evans, 2004 p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005 Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed.Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Grea ter London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of Who really wants affordable housing?.1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved. CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY 2.1 OverviewThis section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualit ative analysis of two case studies one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the Right to Buy policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used.2.2 HypothesisThere are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis.The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London.Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis.2.3 Aims and ObjectivesSpecifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it.Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housi ng problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues.Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened.2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate There are two main categories of research methods qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995 p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000 Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995 p95 and 20). Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995 p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing?Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic in the round (Bryman, 1995 p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trou t, 1998 p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached in the round. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998 p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995 p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately (Greater London Authority, 2005 Section 1-5).This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998 p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harris on, 2001 p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995 p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into affordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006 Sections 1-5).Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be expla ined by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995 p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998 p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995 p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter quantitative research being more scientific (Trout, 1998 p.113).Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995 p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004 p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as th e most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a soft subject area (Bryman, 1995 p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to hard subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998 p.113).However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or scientific terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not str ip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to.It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2 005 Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design.2.3 Sources and Framework This thesis will rely upon primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studi es and contemporary and historical books.These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective.2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives. Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above. CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE DEFINITIONS AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to?Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http//www.plymouth.gov.uk ).Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Grea ter London Authority, 2005 Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are priced out of the market which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16).The problem of affordable housing has also defined as infrastructure needs. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way The changing face of Londons population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and cultureHousing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of Englands most overcrowded households.. (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 2.8).Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006 Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992 p.16) (Barker, 2006 p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints.The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997 p.7 and Rugg, 1999 p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006 p.1).Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector.These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the conc ept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate.3.1.b Economic Analysis of the ProblemThe price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the equilibrium price , is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002 ch.1).How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that equilibrium is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the excess demand in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero.Of course, this process can be reversed. Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are rationed not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the excess supply in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002 ch.7).What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of affordability? Not really. The notion of affordability is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless.Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the market price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called competitive market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium pr ice, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a positivist subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996 Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean?Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are rationed not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002 ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.To illustrate this, imagin e that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from 100,000 to 118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is 100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than 118,000. If that price is, for example, 150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of 125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for 118,000 but instead gets 125,000 the producer is better-off by 7000. Economists say that producer surplus rises by 7000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Similarly, the buyer gets the house for 125,000 but was willing to pay 150,000 for it. The buyer is better-of f by 25,000. Economists say that consumer surplus rises by 25,000 (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game.How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Econom ists refer to this state as one of economic efficiency or Pareto efficiency. (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8).The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the Invisible Hand. He saidEvery individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention (Smith, 1776 p.243).Smiths idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit.How does this analysis help with the problem of affordable housing? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices.This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic app roach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of equity, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is 200,000. Then those who are willing to pay 200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the ethically appropriate way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better that the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the equity-efficiency trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distr ibution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002 Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism.3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.One such policy takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963 p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given ar ea, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005 p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006 p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006 p.11).Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str

Utilising Health Promotion Models

Utilising Health Promotion ModelsHealth promotion is a new public ripe(p)ness initiative which has been integrated into political strategies to improve wellness either within a family, a community, wellness institutions and work places. It refers to effort to hold ill health and win positive health with the aim of enabling populate to take control over their own health (Wills, 2007). This essay primarily seeks to discuss how a health promotion case could be utilised by draw practitioners to facilitate an empower ment within a family unit. Health action model (HAM) pull up stakes be adapted to gird a means by which the verbalize unhurrieds could be serveed by the halt practitioner. The essay begins with a general overview and literature roughly what health and health promotion is near, and then narrows the discussion down to the health promotion model which pull up stakes be used to measure out a patient named Jojo (See Appendix 1 for patient profile). The essay then concludes by evaluating the model used in assessing the patient and if any an different(prenominal) model could be used to assess the patient or not.DEFINITION OF HEALTHAccording to the World Health Organisation (WHO)(1986), health is defined as a condition of complete social, sensible and mental well be of a person and not purely the absence of disease or infirmity. This when elaborated could mean that both positive and negative aspects of well being and health, which stressed on social and mental aspects of health, though not just illness related. Waxman et al., ( 1998) even emphasised that physical , social and mental aspect of health ar connected. There atomic number 18 several factors to see health including social factors, gender, education, surroundings, biological factors and spirit- season-style. According to some scholars resembling Skolnik (2008) describes social factors as an essential factors that determine the health of individuals. Based on his view, there is a great difference between mountain of high up-pitcheder(prenominal)(prenominal) status to that of those of a lower status. This is be create those with a higher status argon well educated, well employed and earning a lot and in any case taking c atomic number 18 of their health. This when comp bed to those with a lower status, it is the opposite of those with a higher status. For instance, someone on a low income may find it difficult to afford some of the necessary needed in instal to live a normal life like keeping the house warm or replacement of faulty stuff in the house (Anderson and Blenkinsopp, 2001). Moreover, those who be break-dance finish off do not buy form local anaesthetic shops at expensive prices exclusively rather do travel for miles to bigger supermarkets to shop. This is because things sold at the supermarkets are of a cheaper price and of more quality than those in local shops. The other side of the story is that, the better off do not depe nd on public transports to travel for miles to shop whilst those on a low income always do so. So if the bus does not turn up, they have to go to these local shops to but their foodstuff (Anderson and Blenkinsopp, 2001).SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORSThe ideas of (Skolnik, 2008, Anderson and Blenkinsopp, 2001) can be supported by (Shi et al, 2008). Shi et al., (2008) suggest that socioeconomic also plays a significant berth in masss live. That is those who are well off play to live in better houses and in locations where there is the risk of being exposed to air pollution is low, have better retrieve to health care, avoid risk lifestyles such as smoking and drinking as well as using of drugs. Building on with their argument, it was proved that the correlation and status concerning the health of Americans who are less educated died younger than those highly educated as described by (Shi et al, 2008).In addition to this, those who are more educated tend to have much friendship about their health as well as practising good health. That is, they are equipped with screwledge as well being in charge over their lives knowing what is and not good for them. This also supports them to have loads of information which ordain help them understand how to live a level-headed life. For instance (Skolnik, 2008) said that a person who is well educated allow adapt a good lifestyle in order to re chief(prenominal) healthy such as having a well balance feed, having fewer children and smoke less as weigh against those who are less educated.ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORSThe environment also acts as an important factor that influences the health of slew that includes a mixture of different factors altogether (Anderson and Blenkinsopp, 2001). Shi et al., (2008) argued that physical, socioeconomic, socio-political and sociocultural are what the environmental factors are made up of. For instance, physical environmental factors are important factors which influence health. This includes food, contaminated water, waste, air pollution, and habitat alteration that can cause different health problems. For example accompaniment in a smoky environment can cause respiratory illness such as asthma.The parting of (Carter and Slack, 2009) described the interaction of a persons environment as having both negative and positive assembles on them. That is a person living in an environment where there is access to health care, good drinking water, less risk of environmental pollution and ray of light run shorts to good health with a positive effect as an outcome. On the other side, those living in environments where there is a poor access to healthcare, drinking contaminated water, exposure to environmental pollution and radiation lead to a bad health which is exactly the opposite of those living in good environment as said by (Carter and Slack, 2009).BIOLOGICAL FACTORSFurthermore, (Kozier et al, 2008) said that some of the biological factors that influence health are inherited ma keup, age, sex and developmental train. In terms of genetic makeup, it can have an effect on the persons intellectual stage or activities and innate personality. This also can have negative features on a peoples health whereby they are prone to susceptible to finicky diseases. Nevertheless, it was made known that people who are more susceptible to genetic diseases are mostly much greater in parents from the same ethnic genetic pool as said by (Kozier et al, 2008). For example in a family where there is a history of asthma or heart disease will by all means affect the other generations of that family.GENDERAs commonwealthd by (Naidoo and Wills, 2009), gender also accounts for the factors which influences health. That is, women are more likely to motif illness that men because most of these women are unlikely to be in full time employment. Women on the on the other side of the story tend to have more access to health care because they are anxious about their health and always want to stay healthy as compared to men whereas they altogether take less advantage of their health. According to biological explanations, women are more prone to infections and do gain from the protective effect of oestrogen that decreases the decease rate of such infection in them. More so, it was further explained by the biological explanations that the female hormones and the reproductive constitution causes women to be responsible for both physical and mental health illness as described by (Naidoo and Wills, 2009).LIFESTYLEKozier et al., (2008) argued that lifestyle also acts as a factor that influences the health of people which all the same does have both negative and positive result on the individual concerning their superior of living. This includes individuals having control over their lives in association to their behavior or activities that involves living condition and sociocultural factors. For instance, eating healthily will help individual with their weight manageme nt even when they get older. Another example is how usage is of a great benefit to the body. This is because exercise help decrease the risk of developing stroke, heart disease, prevents fractures and weak bones and also maintaining flexibility in the joints. This was further explained in terms of spiritual and religious beliefs as having impact on peoples life. For instance, (Kozier et al, 2008) gave a typical example in relation to the donation of blood by members of the shaper witnesses. This group of people avoids the donation of blood which is also against their beliefs because it is not written in the bible.DEFINITION OF HEALTH PROMOTIONTALK ABOUT EDUCATION, TRAINING AND focus AS THE NURSES ROLE IN HEALTH PROMOTIONHealth promotion is defined as ways of allowing individuals to enhance control over their health as well as to improve it as defined by (WHO, 1986). It encompass various approaches including bio- medical, demeanoral / life style and socio- environmental. Though c ritics have argued that behaviour / life style approach have various limitations including expect- led which is a top- down approach. For example the nurse led approach to the patient. Regardless of the in a higher place mention, Jackson (2007) states that the role of the nurse in health promotion is very essential because it lays emphasis on how the health care and the service provided are viewed. In terms of promoting health, it involves the nurse spending time to listen and to talk to their clients or patients. This involves taking the needs of their clients or patients into consideration using high aim of communication skills.Ewles and Simnett (2003) said that through effective listening, the health promoter can help people to speak out their point of view as well indicating their needs and how they feel. This will alter them believe that they are being listened to.Effective listening is an important aspect of communication in terms of health promotion which includes eye con tact, facial expression, pose or gesture indicating the feelings of clients. This helps the nurses to listen to their clients carefully without disruption. Through listening, the nurses are able to capture studyity of what the clients have said. This enables them to confidently ask lots of open terminate questions in order to demonstrate to them that they are being listened to as stated by Morrison and Burnard (1997). An example is a client not wanting to speak to the nurse attending to him because of the disease he has been diagnosed of. Through sympathizing and listening, the client will gain the confidence to speak to the nurse regarding his condition.Jackson (2007) again outlined that through health promotion, the clients are involved in making decision concerning their own health care. This is also a client centred which is based on the assessment of the needs of the clients by taking their point of view into consideration as well as valuing them.Moreover, Rose (2006) states that knowledge is being increased through health promotion which helps people budge their behaviour. This is because each individual is responsible and making choices about their health without taking factors that may have influence on them such as socioeconomic factors. Hence, through health promotion, the nurse as a health promoter will give much information to the client in the form of booklet and using different resources such as information from trusted web sites to educate the patient or client by talking it through with them or one to one basic in the form of counselling (Neis and McEwen, 2001). The client or patient together with his or her family will gain the knowledge about what they are being told which will lead them in making the choices about their health. For example, the nurse advising clients about healthy eating such as eating five-spot a day and its benefit or the side effect of overeating, smoking and drinking. So after giving them all these information it i s in the own elicit of the client to either adopt a healthy lifestyle or not.It is the responsibility of the nurse practitioner as a health promoter or educator to form of a therapeutic or beneficial relationship between the nurse, community individuals and their families. Through this therapeutic relationship, the nurse is able to develop ideas, other nursing interventions and resources which will help facilitate empowerment (Neis and McEwen, 2001). For example, forrader a nurse can transport a client to quit smoking, she must know what the effect of smoking is and explaining it to the clients in a simplify language with confidence.Advocacy is also an essential aspect of health promotion. This is where the nurse practitioner helps people curiously vulnerable people who are dis appoint within the society that cannot speak for themselves because of their dis might or illness makes choices for their health. This is done via taking possible measures to help them become ego-importa nce empowered and independent (Elwles and Simnett, 2003).INTRODUCTION OF THE MODELNarayan-Parker (2002) defines empowerment as shaping of peoples life through the enlargement of liberty of choice and action.There are 2 types of empowerment which are self empowerment and community empowerment. The self empowerment in terms of health promotion is based on counselling which includes non-directive measures and is a client centred approach with the goal of enabling people to be the controllers of their lives at a higher level. (MOVE THIS PARAGRAPH)There are lots of health promotion models but because of Jojos condition, the HAM developed by Tones in the 1970s will be used to assess Jojo falls under behavioural sort model will be used to assess him. The behavioural change model recognises health as a possession of the individual being in charge of it by adopting the kind of lifestyle that they want to in order to maintain it. This is because the aim of this particular model is to persua de people to change their behaviour by adapting a better lifestyle which will help maintain their health as described by (Naidoo and Wills, 2009). The HAM as stated by (Squire, 2002) gives an idea as to why some people decide to change to healthier lifestyle whilst others may not by emphasising on the self conception of the individuals. The self concept includes self esteem which is how people feel about themselves and self image which is how they perceive themselves to be. (REF). Squire (2002) made it known that people with a high level of self esteem and self image are persuaded or enthused to adopt a healthier lifestyle. On the other side of the story, those with a low level of self concept may feel that they are less likely to adopt such lifestyle with no hope of doing so because they believe that they are not in control of their life but rather controlled by expounde, chance or luck as described by (Squire, 2002).The HAM has determine different factors that influence the abi lity of people to change to a healthier lifestyle. These include psychological, social and environmental factor which indicates the likelihood of a person to change his or her behaviour by putting them into practice. However, there are other manipulating relating factors such as beliefs, motivation, normative and the self that works together to indicate the incident of a persons end of changing his or her health lifestyle (Green and Tones, 2010). The four manipulating factors which are beliefs, motivation, normative and the self factors will be elaborated on to access Jojo and his family.INTRODUCTION OF PATIENT,Upon using the Body Mass Index (BMI) calculation on my Jojo during a clinical practice as a student nurse, it was deduced that Jojo is overweight. Several questions were asked to decide the causes of his overweight. It was however noticed that, family lifestyle could play an important role in Jojo being obese. As a student nurse practitioner, it is therefore vital to promo te initiatives that could help Jojo and his entire family to adapt good healthy practices. Various models do exist in health promotion to effect behaviour change (Naidoo and Wills 2000). In practical terms, any model for desired change must indicate what they are doing, why they are doing it, how they going to do it, its outcome and its side effects. fleshiness is affecting not only developed countries but that of developing countries which has been a global concern and posses a great challenge to medical practitioners (Jackson-Leach and Lobstein, 2006). It is real that charitable beings cannot live without food, it is therefore essential to understand the effects that food has on the body of humans and knowing how to keep the body in a good health by eating a balanced diet. It is also essential to give the body whatever it needs knowing that the body needs nutrients to grow. It should be borne in mind that the choices of food have a bulky term effect or impact on the body. Eating a healthy diet can reduce the risk of illness such as obesity (Bupa, 2008). This is because most problems encountered by health practitioners is that of obesity especially in children leading to a negative effect in adulthood if the necessary means are not taken to prevent it from the onset.Childhood obesity is a condition where superabundance body fat negatively affects a childs health or wellbeing. (Wang, 2001). As stated earlier, obesity in childhood can lead to numerous other health complications that may even tend to indicate that that child will be obese later in adulthood. The techniques to determine body fats directly are difficult, though diagnosis of obesity is ofttimes based on Body Mass Index (BMI) (Hesketh, 2005). Due to the rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse health effects it is being recognized as a serious public health concern. The term overweight rather than obese is often used in children as it is less stigmatizing.Obesity increases t he risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes which is normally a disease seen in later life in adults. However, increasely children in their teens are presenting with type 2 diabetes as a consequence of being obese. There are also marked psychological effects leading to low self-esteem which is how they feel about themselves. (Shahar, 2005) In the UK, around 27 per cent of children are now overweight and research suggests the main problem is a continual reduction in the amount of exercise children take. Many overweight children have overweight parents which is often a matter of family lifestyles (Shaya, 2008).Statistics do specify that there was 5.9% increase in obesity among children between the ages of 2 and 10 years from 1995 to 2002 (Department of Health, 2004). The trend of child obesity prevalence in the UK keeps increasing yearly. To effect a change therefore requires effective intervention based on evidence. Evidence based practice in recent times has attracted the pre caution of medical professionals as well as other health care practitioners about how the rate of obesity is increasing especially in children(Daly et al, 2007).Since the three system stated in HAM which are the beliefs system, motivation system and the normative are dimensionally linked together, each of these factors will first be defined before using it to access the patient and his family. The normative system described by (Green and Tones, 2000) is an influence by peoples expectation that leads others to act in agreement to the perception of others so that they would be liked by them. For example,This assignment has adapted behavioural change model to empower Jojo and his family to change their steads, beliefs and behaviour on their family lifestyle .Though, the theory of intend behaviour suggests that, the intention to perform a certain behaviour is influenced by the risks and rewards associated with that choice (Corcoran, 2007). This will be discussed in three sections whic h may be interlink as described in HAM namely normative, cognitive and motivational system.CON + INTERLiterature suggests that initiatives or interventions must acknowledge the needs of people and create a supportive and working environment which will aid an integration of their daily activities (Baric 1994) to influence behaviour change. Though, one way to promote health is to change behaviour by modifying individuals knowledge, beliefs and attitudes. However an increase in the knowledge acquired may not necessarily lead to behaviour change (Bandura, 2004).In behaviour change, the choice is with the individual (Corcoran, 2007), butNorms + INTERit can be facilitated by positive agents of behaviour change or influential people such as parents, teachers and etc, who may act as agents for behavioural change, influencing norms or customs usually as a result of direct exchanges and discussions (Turner, 1999). According to the conceptual theory, behaviour change like modifying knowledge works better when used in combination with other approaches such as empowerment and other factors (Pajares, 2004).MotivationTherefore positive agents when empowered might dispose high initiatives and exceptional interpersonal skills to enable them reach out to others (Turner, 1999).In Jojo case, the family will be empowered via training on healthy eating, habits, exercises and other skills which will help them achieve the planned goals.Management and intervention of obesity(talk abt what schools can do, change individual levels)SchoolsEVALUATION OF THE MODELThe evaluation of the HAM will be embarked on after the management and intervention which is concerned with a long term change. Hence, evaluation of this model will be the right of bill the outcome of the interventions. As described by (Naidoo and Wills, 2000) it is hard to point out the long term outcomes to one intervention or model that adopts the behavioural change model. On the other hand, interventions applied by single or ganisations often affect the long term change because these interventions need to rely on many organisations in order to achieve something at a higher standard.Nevertheless, the nurse practitioner will work in collaboration with different organisations in order to help individuals change their lifestyle for a better outcome such as the school, dietician, social service, Due to Jojos condition and the familys situation, the nurse practitioner will have to assess Jojo using the HAM but must have to take into consideration some of the factors that may act as modifying factors. For example, peers pressure may act as an agent to undertake unhealthy diet and other perceived barriers such as lack of money or not having the time. Therefore, the nurse practitioner will be accountable for providing a program that will help overcome these factors because if the perceived barriers are not dealt with, then the participation will be less.However, to quantify the HAM used to assessed Jojo, three types of the evaluation methods will be used namely process evaluation (i.e formative evaluation. The way things are done, monitoring of climb on during program), impact evaluation (short term outcome, the impact of the intervention on the audience. Eg. Comments from the audience, peer group) and outcomes evaluation (i.e summative evaluation, measurement of challenge at the end of the program, measure the consequences, the long term effect of the intervention)The belief system is where the individuals belief that he or she is at risk of a particular condition and suspecting it as real. Becker (1974) a health belief model made it known that demographic variables such as susceptibility, seriousness, cost, benefits and cue to action are taken into consideration for behaviour changes. That is people are persuaded by the way they see themselves in such situation either it is a demand for them to fight or flight or an illness as well as how severe that situation is. More so, (Green and T ones, 2010) state that there is a relations between the belief and motivational system whereas beliefs are referred to as cognitive and how people make their own judgement about how an event is likely to happen which is known as the subjective probabilities.Apparently, Jojo is aware that his dad died of high blood pressure with obesity as being the cause. Now that Jojo himself is overweight and knowing that his life too is at risk and if such measures are not taken to help him changed to a better lifestyle, something different will come up. Looking at all these episodes surrounding his life, he will be tasked by these challenging beliefs to change to a healthy lifestyle. His mum on the side will also encourage him to change his eating habit and not Jojo alone will she encourage but the rest of her children as well.Nevertheless, the belief of an event likely to take place will cause the emotional state of the individuals or to give rise to the persons attitude of adhering to a partic ular action (Green and Tones, 2010). That is people with optimistic attitudes see both behavioural control and normative pressure above their behaviour will enable them to adopt a sloshed intention to change their behaviour. ( Fishbein and Ajzen 1975)The belief system will have effect on the persons self concept for taking such an action will all be considered by the person. This is because self concept links to the beliefs system indicating how people develop across-the-board analysis about themselves. This includes their temperament, attitudes, abilities and beliefs. This is related to how people say and do and the way they understand feedbacks given to them by others (Plummer, 2005). This belief system will not only affect the persons self concept only but also on the self efficacy. This is described by the social cognitive theorist (Bandura, 1997) as ones ability to carry out a task in a way that will lead to a particular goal.Powell (2005) said that people build up self estee m as they grow older. Hence, self esteem is described as how people feel or perceive themselves which includes their way of looking, abilities to do things and relationships with others (Powell, 2005). Therefore, people with a high self esteem perceive and belief themselves to be important, worthy and feeling good about themselves with a positive self idea as stated by (Kasser, 2002).On the side of the story, how people feel about themselves can lead to poor coping of such demand. This is because (Kaaser, 2002) states that people with a low self esteem feel being unwanted, unloved, worthless, neglected and belittled.Furthermore, because Jojo is aware that he is overweight and in the position to change to a healthier lifestyle, his attitude towards that will lead to a strong emotional state that will empower him to adapt to that change as well as coming with a positive outcome.In Jojos case,It is suggested that people who have a strong and a permanent objective to change to a partic ular behaviour are do to take actions based on their intentions to do so. On the other hand, it was also manifested that though some individuals are extremely serious to change their behaviour, their intention to do so are not that strong to enable them fulfil that action. This is because for any action to be fulfilled, other factors act in association with it such as beliefs and poor emotional state which always make it difficult for some people to achieve the targeted action (Ajzen, 2005).Since Jojo is obese and is highly motivated to lose weight, the intention to do so must be in the form of meticulous information of how to put that intended action into practice. For example, the planning of this should include how to go about it like when to exercise or the quantity of food to be eaten daily and the variety. Other intended actions to be taken include walking to school or else of taking the bus. This on the other side will take time for him to get there thereby leading to a poo r emotional state which will drive him to get the bus if his intentions are not strong to act on the targeted actions.The community and societal norms also play a major role in shaping the behaviour of people as well as having influence on them especially by those around them such as families, peers and friends. This is because (Anderson, 2004) said that community norms act as persuasive principles that show the actual things to and not to be done by the individuals which influences peoples health leading to a behaviour change. Social norms on the other side as stated by (Shanrma and Malhotra, 2007) helps people to know what acceptable and abnormal behaviours are. This is based an agreed behaviours established by members of that society acting as a strong influence on their social behaviour.Further to this, the theory of planned behaviour suggest that the intention of a person to act on his or her behaviour depends on normative system or beliefs which comprises of peers, parents, s ocietal norms and close friends. Hence, the person wanting to change his or her behaviour will have to belief that these groups of people will agree or disagree with the intended behaviour to be carried out (Ajzen, 2005). It is this group of people which are normally refer to as behaviour change agents. Nevertheless, Tone and Tilford (2001), assertion that the way people view the national norms and their motivation in order to act to these norms will be less likely to be important than the norms or practice of their community and the associate motivation to comply to it.Unequivocally, for Jojo to take up this action, his mother acting as an agent can help persuade him to take up that action regardless of its side effect such as drive, where he will be feeling hungry and will be tempted to eat more to satisfy himself. His peers on the other hand of the story, because Jojo is being bullied by them because he is overweight, that alone will make him feel that he is overweight, which wil l intend motivate him to change his eating habit leading to a high self efficacy. According to .., those with a high self efficacy are capable of performing a given task such as exercising dog walking, going to the gym and eating healthily in order to lose weight. However, those with a low self efficacy will be persuade not to take up that action because they feel they cannot make it and do not have the confidence to go about it. This will also lead to a low self esteem which is where that fellow sees or value him or herself to be.That is to be responsible for own feelings or emotions by own value about the self in order to carry out a particular task (Green and Tones, 2010). This could also be linked to the theory of planned behaviour developed by (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) in association with HAM for behavioural change.On the other side of the story, families, peers, friends and other networks also act as a strong influence on the normative system.MANAGEMENT AND INTERVENTIONS OF OB ESITYVarious methods and interventions are being used to manage obesity in children. Goldfield and Epstein (2002) said that parents can be used as agents in tackling behaviour change in children. This is because it increases the chances of changing the environment as well as providing them with the necessary supports. This can also be termed as stimulus control whereby parents will be persuaded not to bring such food stuff into the house like foods high in fat or energy dense foods. This will not only help the child that they are trying to change his or her behaviour but also the other family members (Goldfield and Epstein, 2002).Nevertheless, adaptation of dietary intake, increasing physical activities and time spent on inactive behaviour should be reduced which will help prevent individuals from becoming overweight. More so, the amount of time spent watching television should be monitored and parents should see to it that they do not allow their children spend much time watching t elevision as said by (McLennan, 2004).The ideas of (McLennan, 2004) can be supported by the view of (Rippe and Hess, 1998). Rippe and Hess (1998) said that physical activity plays a major role

The Catcher In The Rye :: essays research papers

The novel The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D. Salinger, is about a troubled young man named Holden Caulfield. Holden searches his teenage life, struggling to take in answers to his questions about himself and his identity. No matter where Holden goes, in his opinion he is surrounded by phonies. They appear to be everywhere Holden is his school, the hotel, the theatre, and all over the streets of for struggled-looking York. The trading floor is told from Holdens point of view, as he endeavours to put together the pieces of the puzzle that he calls his life.Holden Caulfield, the main section in the novel, is an immature teenager. Holden is viteen years old, six feet two inches tall, with a crew cut and prematurely greying hair. His story begins as he is kicked out of prep school, and takes off to New York. Holdens thoughts and ideas reveal many of his character traits. One late Saturday night, four days before the beginning of school vacation, Holden decides to leave Pencey, his scho ol, at once and travels to New York by train. Once in New York, he decides that he will stay in a cheap motel until Wednesday, when he is to return home. His plan shows how very impetuous he is and how he acts on a whim. He is unrealistic, thinking that he has a foolproof plan, even though the extent of his plans are to take a room in a hotel...and just take it easy till Wednesday. This course of action proves Holdens recklessness and immaturity very early on in the novel.Another well minor (and yet still imperative) addition to the novel is Phoebe Caulfield. Holdens younger sister is his main supporter. She sticks with him no matter what, but she also, however, is not panic-stricken to scold Holden for his errors. Although Phoebe is merely a young child, she understands Holden, sometimes more than he does. Old Phoebe didnt say anything, but she was listening.... she always listens when you specialise her something. And the funny part is she knows, half the time, what the hell yo ure talking about. She really does. (167) Phoebe is an instant reminder of delight to Holden, and every decision he makes revolves in some way around the sister he loves so much.Holden Caulfield, at first, appears to be having a conflict with society, but, upon closer examination, we see that he is truly only at war with himself.

Dreams in Death of a Salesman. Essay -- English Literature

Dreams in Death of a Salesman.In this essay Im expiry to consider Arthur Millers perception ofdreams, particularly the Ameri substructure Dream. Arthur Millers play Deathof a Salesman is a detailed review on the capitalist American societyof the 1940s and also on human psychology and how much materialisticsuccess means to us. He uses the misfortunes of a salesman named WillyLoman to illustrate this. Miller introduces the Loman family in adepressing mood (dim lighting is used and shows a house that hastowering, angular shapes surrounding it and with little furniture).This immediately gives the audience a glum feeling rough the play. TheLoman family is a very stereotypical American family, with the father,Willy, working all day, a loving mother, Linda, and two children, Biffand Happy. As the play develops however, we learn more than and more aboutthe real tragedy of the family. Willy believes in the American dream.It was very influential in the American society of the 1940s and sti llis to some people, today. only only a few people have benefited fromit. The American dream is based on the idea that as long as someone whole works hard, they will achieve great success no matter what their sex,age, nationality is. As the audience learn about the Loman familyspoor financial situation, it becomes clear that Willy is a victim ofthe American dream. Willys failure in leading a rich or even just acomfortable life is very apparent. He complains about his work andstruggles to pay his bills. He is also frequently shown in a state ofdepression, he cannot concentrate when driving he is still working athis old age and is struggling to bring in a steady income. Hisunstable mind makes him contradict himself in th... ...fridge fails. Arthur Miller seems to see her, not Ben, as the realhero of the play. This is reflected in the gentle respect he gives toher in his writing.This play is a strong message against the principle of the AmericanDream. Willy Loman is ever striving t o achieve the dream, butdrives himself crazy. Biff seems to be the only character in the Lomanfamily that is able to set himself aside from this dream, wanting onlyto be riant - his own man. Although I believe dreams to be animportant, if not essential part of life, I also believe thatcontentment is far more important. If you cannot be expert with whatyou have, you cannot possibly hope to be happy with what you wish for.Willy Loman dreams of becoming a great man, dreams of the great man hewas and dreams of the great man Biff can be, he just fails to realisethat they are great men.